| Word | RW Definition/Explanation |
| Author | Any person and/or group listed as an author on an original article or in a notice that updates and/or changes the authors of an original article. |
| Conclusions | Conclusions refers to the written conclusions presented in a publication. Conclusions generally reflect the researchers’ assessment of the research’s impact, significance, etc. |
| Data | Data is generally tabular or matrix material included with a publication, to include tables, lists, formulas, proofs, textual corpora and code. Data may be referred to by authors or publishers as a figure; in those cases, we use data, rather than image. If formulas, or proofs, or code are the focus of the article/research (i.e., created by the author/team), they are data. |
| Duplication | Also known as “self-plagiarism”. When one or more authors re-use their previous material in a later work without appropriate citation(s) to the previous material. RW reasons with “duplication” do not state or imply, nor should users infer, any intentionality. |
| Error | A mistake without the intention to mislead. Reasons using “error” may also reflect that a notice from the journal/publisher uses the word “error” or “mistake.” Entries with reasons using “error” may also have non-error reasons when there are other sources that indicate intention to mislead in some way. |
| Fabrication | Intentional creation of material in order to mislead. RW follows ORI in their use of the term fabrication. |
| Falsification | Intentional changes to material in order to mislead. RW follows ORI in their use of the term falsification. |
| Figure | RW does not use the term “figure” in its “Reasons” list. Authors and publishers often use this term to cover a wide range of often, but not always, non-textual material. We use “image” and/or “data.” Cf. “image” and “data.” |
| Image | Images are visual material included with a publication, to include gels or blots, charts (any kind, scatter, bar, etc.), graphs, stains (cells), electrograms, electrophoresis, pictures/photographs/screenshots, diagrams, MRI, x-ray, CAT scans, CT scans, maps, topographical/survey data, satellite images, engineering diagrams/schematics, wireframes (websites), tree diagrams and drawings. Images may also be called figures. Reasons using “image” may also refer to undetermined non-textual/non-data material (i.e., the notice does not specify what a figure contains). |
| Investigation | RW uses “investigation” to reflect a process of determining if an/any allegation(s) has/have merit and/or whether allegations warrant further action or review. RW uses this reason for allegations that are taken under consideration, whether or not further action or review is deemed necessary. RW uses this reason even if recommendations from an investigation are not implemented. |
| Manipulation | Intentional changes to data, images or results, causing the data, images or results to deviate from original output(s). RW reasons with “manipulation” do not state or imply, nor should users infer, intent to mislead. |
| Notice | Notices vary widely in format, length and focus across journals/publications and publishers. RW considers a notice to be any statement that is not just a watermark or document stamp or label before a title. Notices could be: a separate item with DOI, URL, etc., an update to published material (in the form of a hover effect, a single sentence, a sentence in PMC) or any other format that is not just marking a PDF or other document/file or just adding a label to a title. |
| Paper Mill | A business that generates and sells research papers or portions of papers for the buyer(s) to claim authorship; the business is not acknowledged as a contributor or author. |
| Plagiarism | The use of ideas, text, images or any other material from a previous publication, without clear attribution and citation to the original source. In cases where the original source materials are from works by one or more of the authors, RW uses “duplication.” RW reasons with “plagiarism” do not state or imply, nor should users infer, any intentionality. |
| Results | Results refers to intermediate-stage or final-stage experimental outcomes. Experiment is used broadly to cover a wide range of disciplines and experimental designs. |
| Text | Text is character-based material included with a publication, to include words, numbers and related symbols. Text may appear in any part of an article, including paratextual materials (e.g., author affiliations, footnotes, etc.). If formulas, or proofs, or code are used to facilitate the focus of the article/research (i.e., used by the author/team), they are text. |
| Third party | Any person and/or group that addresses, affects or comments on the research and/or publication process(es), who is not listed as an author, company/institutional affiliation or journal/publisher on an original article or in a notice that updates and/or changes the author(s), affiliation(s) or journals/publishers. |
| Unreliable | The author(s), journal/publisher and/or institution has stated that the data, images, or results are not reliable, or that there are concerns about their integrity or validity, or that they should be interpreted with caution. |